हिन्दू विधि: स्रोत एवं शाखाएँ (Hindu law– Source and Schools)
प्रश्न- हिन्दू विधि क्या है?
सामान्यतः हिन्दू विधि का आशय उस विधि से होता है जो हिन्दू समुदाय के व्यक्तियों को प्रशासित करती है। लेकिन यह इंग्लैड के सामान्य विधि (common law) की तरह न तो प्रथात्मक विधि है और न ही किसी राजा या सम्प्रभु द्वारा प्रवर्तमान आदेश। यह वस्तुतः प्राचीन धर्मग्रन्थों, जैसे, वेद, पुराण, स्मृति इत्यादि, में उल्लिखित नियम हैं, जिन्हें हिन्दू ईश्वरीय विधि मानते थे जो ऋषियों द्वारा लिखा गया था और पवित्र था। राजा भी इसे स्वीकार करते थे और अपने राज्य कार्य में इसका पालन करते थे। प्राचीन काल में राजा अपना लक्ष्य धर्मानुसार शासन करना मानते थे जिसका तात्पर्य इस विधि के अनुसार शासन करने से होता था। हिन्दू विधि के अन्तर्गत प्राचीन काल में दीवानी विधि, दण्डिक विधि, संविदा विधि, सम्पत्ति हस्तांतरण विधि, विवाह, उत्तराधिकार और भरण-पोषण से संबंधित विधियाँ आती थी। माननीय मद्रास उच्च न्यायालय ने हिन्दू विधि की परिभाषा इन शब्दों में दिया है- “सामान्यतः हिन्दू विधि से देश की प्रथात्मक विधि का सम्बोधन नहीं होता है जैसा कि इंग्लैण्ड में सामान्य विधि से संबोधित होता है। यह राजाओं द्वारा निर्मित विधि नहीं है जो प्रजा के ऊपर लागू होता है। साधारणतः हिन्दू विधि का अर्थ अनेक संस्कृत ग्रन्थों में बताए गए नियमों से है जो संस्कृत के विद्वानों द्वारा प्रमाणिक ग्रन्थ माने जाते है।”
हिन्दू विधि की उत्पत्ति के संबंध में दो तरह की मान्यताएँ हैं। हिन्दूओं के अनुसार यह ईश्वरीय वाणी है क्योंकि प्रचीन काल में जिन ऋषि-मुनियों ने अपनी आध्यात्मिक शक्ति से ईश्वर का साक्षात्कार किया था उन्होंने ईश्वर से प्राप्त हुए आदेश को ग्रन्थों के रूप में लिख कर समाज को सौंप दिया। वेद, भाष्य, स्मृति इत्यादि ऐसे ही ग्रन्थ है जो कि हिन्दू विधि के मूल स्रोत हैं। इसलिए शासक और शासित दोनों इस विधि को मानने के लिए बाध्य हैं। दूसरा मत यूरोपीय न्यायशास्त्रियों का है। उनके अनुसार यह ईश्वरीय विधि नहीं बल्कि बहुप्रचलित रूढ़ियों तथा लोक रीतियों पर आधारित विधि है।
प्रचीन हिन्दू विधि की सबसे महत्वपूर्ण विशेषता यह थी कि यह धर्म से घनिष्ठ रूप से संबद्ध था। ईश्वर से साक्षात्कार करने वाले और व्यक्तिगत राग-द्वेष से रहित निष्काम ऋषि-मुनियों द्वारा लिखे होने के कारण यह ईश्वरीय आदेश था और इसमें परिवर्तन नहीं किया जा सकता था। राजा और प्रजा दोनों इससे आबद्ध थे। राजा का यह कर्त्तव्य था कि वह वेदों तथा शास्त्रों में लिखे गये नियमों का जनता से पालन करवाये। अगर राजा इन नियमों का पालन नहीं करता या जनता से नहीं करवाता तो वह पद से च्युत किए जाने के योग्य माना जाता था। अतः विधि की सर्वोच्चता इसकी दूसरी विशेषता यह थी। इसकी तीसरी विशेषता यह थी कि धर्म से घनिष्ठ रूप से संबंधित होने के बावजूद इसमें संकीर्णता नहीं थी। इसमें किसी जाति या समुदाय के खिलाफ घृणा नहीं थी बल्कि समाज के सभी समुदायों का समाज के प्रति और समाज का उनके प्रति कर्त्तव्य निर्धारित थे। राजा का कर्त्तव्य यह देखना था कि सभी अपने निर्धारित कर्त्तव्यों का पालन करे। आधुनिक विधि के विपरीत अधिकार से अधिक कर्त्तव्य से संबंधित होना इसकी चौथी विशेषता थी। समाज के सभी समुदायों और व्यक्यिों का निश्चित कर्त्तव्य था जिसके पालन की अपेक्षा उस से की जाती थी। इसकी पाँचवी विशेषता यह थी कि यह जीवन के सभी पक्षों पर लागू होती थी चाहे वह आपराधिक हो या दीवानी। इसकी छठी महत्वपूर्ण विशेषता यह थी कि यह किसी भौगोलिक क्षेत्र विशेष पर लागू नहीं होता था बल्कि व्यक्तिगत रूप से हिन्दुओं पर लागू होता था अर्थात हिन्दू जहाँ भी रहेगा यह उस पर लागू होगा।
प्रश्न- हिन्दू विधि के महत्वपूर्ण स्रोत कौन से हैं?
प्राचीन काल में हिन्दू विधि जीवन के सभी क्षेत्रों में लागू होता था। दीवानी विधि, दण्डिक विधि, संविदा विधि, सम्पत्ति हस्तांतरण विधि, विवाह, उत्तराधिकार और भरण-पोषण इत्यादि से संबंधित विधियों पर हिन्दू धर्म ग्रन्थों का पूर्ण प्रभाव था। स्मृति ग्रंथ मूल रूप से विधि ग्रन्थ ही थे। मुस्लिम शासकों ने भी सामान्यतः इन विधियों को नहीं बदला और हिंदुओं पर उनकी परम्परागत विधि ही लागू रही। ब्रिटिश काल में देश में प्रचलित कानूनों को सर्वप्रथम संहिताबद्ध करने का प्रयास किया गया। दाण्डिक विधि में यद्यपि समान विधि संहिता लागू किया गया जो कि सभी समुदायों पर समान रूप से लागू होता था। लेकिन दीवानी, विशेषकर कुटुम्ब विधि में उन्होंने प्रचलित विधि को सामान्यतः अपना लिया और हिन्दू और मुसलमान दोनों कौटुम्बिक मामलों में अपने परम्परागत विधियों से शासित होते रहे। फिर भी तात्कालीन आवश्यकता के कारण अंग्रेज शासकों ने कई कानून बना कर इनमें कुछ महत्वपूर्ण परिवर्तन कर दिया। स्वतंत्रता के बाद सरकार ने कई महत्वपूर्ण विधेयक पारित किए है। इन विधायनों में यद्यपि परम्परागत हिन्दू विधि को काफी हद तक मान्यता दिया गया है। पर साथ ही इसको समसामयिक आवश्यकताओं के अनुरूप और एक समान बनाने का प्रयास भी किया गया है। जाति और लिंग आधारित असमानता वाले परम्परागत विधियों को अस्वीकार कर समान विधि लागू करने का प्रयत्न किया गया है।
वर्तमान में हिन्दुओं के कौटुम्बिक विधि मुख्य रूप से निम्नलिखित अधिनियमों से प्रशासित होता है:
- 1. जाति निर्योग्यता निवारण अधिनियम, 1850
- 2. हिन्दू विधवा पुनर्विवाह अधिनियम, 1856
- 3. देशवासी परिवर्तित धर्म वाले विवाह-विच्छेद सम्बन्धी अधिनियम, 1856
- 4. विशेष विवाह अधिनियम, 1872
- 5. भारतीय वयस्कता अधिनियम, 1875
- 6. सम्पत्ति हस्तांतरण अधिनियम, 1882
- 7. संरक्षक तथा आश्रित अधिनियम, 1890
- 8. हिन्दू सम्पत्ति निवर्तन अधिनियम, 1916
- 9. पुण्यार्थ तथा धार्मिक न्यास अधिनियम, 1920
- 10. भारतीय उत्तराधिकार अधिनियम, 1925
- 11. हिन्दू उत्तराधिकार (संशोधन) अधिनियम, 1929
- 12. बाल-विवाह अपराध अधिनियम, 1929
- 13. अधिगम का लाभ अधिनियम, 1930
- 14. हिन्दू नारी का सम्पत्ति का अधिकार अधिनियम, 1937
- 15. आर्य विवाह मान्यकारी अधिनियम, 1937
- 16. हिन्दू विवाह निर्योग्यता निवारण अधिनियम, 1946
- 17. हिन्दू नारी का पृथ्क आवास एवं भरण-पोषण का अधिकार का अधिनियम, 1946
- 18. हिन्दू विवाह मान्यता अधिनियम, 1954
- 19. विशेष विवाह अधिनियम, 1954
- 20. हिन्दू विवाह अधिनियम, 1955
- 21. हिन्दू अवयस्कता तथा संरक्षकता अधिनियम, 1956
- 22. हिन्दू दत्तकग्रहण तथा भरण-पोषण अधिनियम, 1956
- 23. दहेज निषेध अधिनियम, 1960
- 24. विवाह-विधि (संशोधन) अधिनियम, 1976
- 25. बाल-विवाह (अवरोध) अधिनियम, 1978
- 26. बाल-विवाह निरोध अधिनियम, 1929
- 27. बाल-विवाह निषेध अधिनियम, 2006
प्रश्न- हिन्दू विधि की विभिन्न शाखाएँ कौन-सी है?
प्राचीनकाल में प्रचलित हिन्दू विधि कोई एक समान विधि नहीं थी। इन में मौलिक समानता के बावजूद क्षेत्र विशेष में प्रचलित प्रथाओं एवं रीतियो के अनुरूप इसमें कुछ भिन्नताएँ भी थी। देश के सभी क्षेत्र अलग-अलग भाष्यों और निबन्धों से शासित होते थे जिनके फलस्वरूप हिन्दू विधि की विभिन्न शाखाओं का विकास हुआ। इन शाखाओं की उपशाखाएँ भी विकसित हुई।
हिन्दू विधि की विभिन्न शाखाओं में तीन विशेष महत्वपूर्ण हैं- मिताक्षरा, दायभाग और व्यवहार मयूख। इन तीनों का नामकरण संबंधित शाखा के मूल भाष्य ग्रन्थों के आधार पर किया गया है। मिताक्षरा शाखा का आधार याज्ञवल्क्य द्वारा 11वीं-12वीं शताब्दी में लिखा गया भाष्य “मिताक्षरा” है। दायभाग के रचयिता जीमूतवाहन थे। बंगाल एवं कुछ अन्य क्षेत्रों को छोड़ कर लगभग समस्त देश में मिताक्षरा शाखा अपनी उपशाखाओं के साथ मान्य थी। दायभाग शाखा पश्चिमी बंगाल और असम में प्रचलित थी। व्यवहार मयूख शाखा महाराष्ट्र क्षेत्र तथा सौराष्ट्र, मध्य प्रदेश एवं आंध्र प्रदेश के कुछ क्षेत्रों में प्रचलित थी। इनको इनकी उपशाखाएँ के साथ निम्नलिखित चार्ट से समझा जा सकता है।
प्रश्न- मिताक्षरा और दायभाग शाखाओं में मूल अंतर क्या है?
प्रश्न- वर्तमान न्यायिक व्यवस्था में हिन्दू विधि किस हद तक मान्य है?
प्राचीन काल के विपरीत वर्तमान में हिन्दू विधि सभी विषयों पर लागू नहीं होती बल्कि कुछ विषयों तक ही लागू होती है। इनमें प्रमुख है- उत्तराधिकार, दाय, विवाह और धार्मिक प्रथाएँ और संस्थाएँ। दत्तकग्रहण, संरक्षण, पारिवारिक संबंध, इच्छा पत्र (will), दान (gift) और विभाजन जैसे कुछ विषयों पर भी परम्परागत हिन्दू विधि का प्रभाव है। विधियों में समय-समय पर संशोधन भी हुए है जिस कारण वर्तमान में कानूनों का जो रूप प्रचलित है वह परम्परागत हिन्दू विधि से बहुत अलग है। संविदात्मक संबंधों में हिन्दू विधि नहीं बल्कि दण्ड विधि और प्रक्रिया (penal law and procedure), संविदा विधि (law of contract), दुष्कृति विधि (law of torts), आपराधिक विधि प्रक्रिया और दीवानी प्रक्रिया (criminal & civil procedure), इत्यादि लागू होतीं हैं। हिन्दूओं के लिए वैयक्तिक विधि को संहिताबद्ध करने का सबसे महत्त्वपूर्ण प्रयास 1955 और 1956 में हुए जबकि चार अधिनियम बनाए गए। ये चारों अधिनियम वर्तमान हिन्दू विधि के मूल अंग हैं। ये चारों अधिनियम हैं:
- 1. हिन्दू विवाह अधिनियम, 1955 ई.ए
- 2. हिन्दू अवयस्कता तथा संरक्षकता अधिनियम, 1956 ई.ए
- 3. हिन्दू दत्तकग्रहण तथा भरण-पोषण अधिनियम, 1956 ई.ए, और
- 4. हिन्दू उत्तराधिकार अधिनियम, 1956
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